effect of oman rulers in zanzibar

In 1806 Sad assassinated Badr and became virtual sole ruler, though Salm, a nonentity, had titular status until his death in 1821. VIII, 258, State Pp., Vol. During the late 19th century and early 20th century, the sultan in Muscat faced rebellion by members of the Ibadi sect residing in the interior of Oman, centered around the town of Nizwa, who wanted to be ruled exclusively by their religious leader, the Imam of Oman. Helped abolish the slave trade in Zanzibar by signing an agreement with Britain in 1870, prohibiting slave trade in his kingdom, and closing the slave market in Mkunazini. Local residents buy and sell fish at the Malindi fish market in Stone Town on the island of Zanzibar, December 2017 (AFP) In Oman, the impact of Zanzibar's revolution 1964 and subsequent exile of . State and explain the factors that led to the development of trade along the East African Coast. In November 1886, a German-British border commission established the Zanj as a ten-nautical mile (19 km) wide strip along most of the coast of East Africa, stretching from Cape Delgado (now in Mozambique) to Kipini (now in Kenya), including Mombasa and Dar es Salaam, all offshore islands, and several towns in what is now Somalia. The death of Sa'id bin Sultan in 1856 prompted a further division: the descendants of the late sultan ruled Muscat and Oman (Thuwaini ibn Said Al-Busaid, r. 18561866) and Zanzibar (Mayid ibn Said Al-Busaid, r. 18561870); the Qais branch intermittently allied itself with the ulama to restore imamate legitimacy. Several thousand Arabs (5,000-12,000 Zanzibaris of Arabic descent) and Indians were killed, thousands more detained or expelled, their property either confiscated or destroyed. Whoever ruled Oman could control transit between the Strait of Hormuz, the gateway to the Arabian Peninsulas eastern shoreline, and the Gulf of Oman, an outlet to the Indian Ocean. A majority of his subjects were Sunnite Muslims, and for them he appointed a special judge. Salim II bin Thuwaini 11 February 1866 3 October 1868 Killed [5] The Sultanate's territories varied over time, and at their greatest extent spanned all of present-day Kenya[citation needed] and the Zanzibar Archipelago off the Swahili Coast. Majid bin Said Al-Busaid 19 October 1856 7 October 1870 Bargash ibn Sa'id attempted to usurp the throne from his brother in 1859, but failed. Until 1884, the Sultans of Zanzibar controlled a substantial portion of the Swahili Coast, known as Zanj, and trading routes extending further into the continent, as far as Kindu on the Congo River. (od poniedziaku do pitku w godz. Over the next few years, all of the mainland possessions of Zanzibar came to be administered by European imperial powers, beginning in 1888 when the Imperial British East Africa Company took over administration of Mombasa.[15]. [3] It also contained significant minorities in the 50,000 Arabs and 20,000 South Asians who were prominent in business and trade. Said III bin Taimur 10 February 1932 23 July 1970 Deposed [29] Sultan Jamshid bin Abdullah was overthrown a month later during the Zanzibar Revolution. The British instead wanted Hamoud bin Mohammed to become Sultan, believing that he would be much easier to work with. In 1845 he signed a further treaty with Britain, prohibiting both the export and import of slaves from or into his African dominions. Thuwaini bin Said 19 October 1856 11 February 1866 Killed He depended heavily in his commercial ventures on Indian merchants, whose immigration he encouraged. Despite Zanzibar's historical ties to the Middle East, Omani rule had a particular effect on the territory. This influential control was most likely exerted from a coastal center such as Sohar. A struggle for succession took place as the Sultan's cousin Khalid bin Barghash seized power. Sandwiched between these imperial celebrities, the little-known history of the Omani Empire has failed to pique the interest of popular culture or more than a handful of scholars. His government was essentially personal and patriarchal, and he sat daily in public to settle cases and complaints. Rev. Oman is currently the only country in the Islamic world with a majority Ibadi population. Since his accession in 1970, Sultan Qaboos has balanced tribal, regional, and ethnic interests in composing the national administration. For those in a hurry, they enable a quick summary of many important subjects. Oman occupies a strategic location on the Strait of Hormuz at the entrance to the Persian Gulf, 35 miles (56 km) directly opposite Iran. With the signing of the Heligoland-Zanzibar Treaty between the United Kingdom and the German Empire in 1890, Zanzibar itself became a British protectorate. The Portuguese were expelled and a lucrative trade in slaves and ivory thrived, along with an expanding plantation economy centring on cloves. The Sultan of Zanzibar controlled a substantial portion of the east African coast, known as Zanj, and trading routes extending much further across the continent, as far as Kindu on the Congo River. The first sultan of Zanzibar - Majid bin Said Al-Busaid. In later centuries, Omani sailors formed a commercial exchange with the inhabitants of Zanzibar that included ivory, slaves, and spices. Sumerians traded with Oman, and the Persian Achaemenid dynasty, controlled and/or influenced the Omani peninsula. [31] However, the island's Arab inhabitants, as the major landowners, were generally wealthier than the natives;[32] the major political parties were organised largely along ethnic lines, with Arabs dominating the Zanzibar Nationalist Party (ZNP) and natives the Afro-Shirazi Party (ASP). The population of Muscat fell from 55,000 to 8,000 between the 1850s and 1870s. Between 1053 and 1154, Oman was part of the Great Seljuk Turk Empire. This treaty turned Zanzibar into a British protectorate. 87 p. 968. Give some of the trade commodities that were exported from Zanzibar, Oman rule became very effective in the east African coast through Seyyid Said. Course Hero is not sponsored or endorsed by any college or university. Aided by Communist and leftist governments such as the former South Yemen (People's Democratic Republic of Yemen), the rebels formed the Dhofar Liberation Front, which later merged with the Marxist-dominated Popular Front for the Liberation of Oman and the Arab Gulf (PFLOAG). In an effort to curb the Dhofar insurgency, Sultan Qaboos expanded and re-equipped the armed forces and granted amnesty to all surrendering rebels while vigorously prosecuting the war in Dhofar. Highlight the negative effects of the Portuguese rule over the 200 years during which they administrated over the east African coast. Vasco da Gama's visit in 1499 marks the beginning of European influence, and the Portuguese established control over the island four years later. Al Said has ruled as sultan ever since. Faisal bin Turki 4 June 1888 9 October 1913 British protectorate imposed on 20 March 1891 Lord Delamere now commenced extensive farming operations, and in 1905, when a large number of immigrants arrived from Britain and South Africa, the Protectorate was transferred from the authority of the Foreign Office to that of the Colonial Office. He developed a small army and a fleet that also served mercantile purposes. Only then did Zanzibars population wrest back control for itself. These stone tools, some up to 125,000 years old, resemble those made by humans in Africa around the same period. Rev. One distinguishing feature of Ibadism is the choice of ruler by communal consensus and consent. View More History and Government Questions and Answers | Return to Questions Index, Seyyid Said made Zanzibar a commercial center for the whole of east Africa coast and revived the trade links with the interior and with local communities such as the Mijikenda and the Akamba. The same year the German East Africa Company acquired formal direct rule over the coastal area previously submitted to German protection. c) The towns were also encouraged by the prevailing weaknesses in Oman due to civil wars and. Ta strona korzysta z ciasteczek aby wiadczy usugi na najwyszym poziomie. 246. The conflict flared up again in 1954, when the new imam led a sporadic 5-year rebellion against the sultan's efforts to extend government control into the interior. This is the southern route out of Africa. He formed a British East Africa Association which led to the Imperial British East Africa Company being chartered in 1888 and given the original grant to administer the territory. Arab tribes migrated eastward to Oman, coinciding with the increasing presence in the region of peoples from present-day Iran. [getrecentmag static_heading=falsecat_name=false author_name=false author_image=false mag_title=false], Designed by Arabesque Media | Copyrights Inside Arabia 2019. Before he could enter the palace, another potential contender for the throne, Khalid bin Barghash, seized the palace and declared himself sultan. While Oman directed its focus inward after the 19th-century fall of its colonial empire, Zanzibar found itself wrestling with the implications of Omani rule for some time after. His earlier years were complicated by family and tribal quarrels, by Anglo-French rivalry in the Indian Ocean, by the expansion of the Wahhb Muslim puritan movement in Arabia, and by the incessant depredations of the Qawsim pirates. Azzan bin Qais 3 October 1868 30 January 1871 Killed But Oman was nonetheless conquered by several foreign powers, having been controlled by the Qarmatians between 931932 and then again between 933934. Oman's moderate, independent foreign policy has sought to maintain good relations with all Middle Eastern countries. The Yarubid recaptured Muscat from the Portuguese in 1650 after a colonial presence on the northeastern coast of Oman dating to 1508. 2008-2023 by KenyaPlex.com. Rev. By about 250 B.C, the Parthian dynasty brought the Persian Gulf under their control and extended their influence as far as Oman. Oman and Zanzibar are separated by 2,400 of the Indian Ocean. endobj [20]:761 This constituted the administrator a governor and provided for legislative and executive councils. A painting of Omani Sultan Said bin Sultan shown at the House of Wonders. He had a patriarchal relationship with his many slaves, whose weddings he sometimes attended. Because they needed to control the Persian Gulf trade route, the Parthians established garrisons in Oman. He ruled Zanzibar and Oman from 1806-1856. %PDF-1.5 The Council of Ministers, which functions as a cabinet, consists of 26 ministers, all directly appointed by Qaboos. The Protectorate of Kenya was governed as part of the Colony of Kenya by virtue of an agreement between the United Kingdom and the Sultan dated 14 December 1895. Tippu Tip or Tib (1837 - June 14, 1905), real name Hamad bin Muhammad bin Jumah bin Rajab bin Muhammad bin Sad al-Murghab, was a Swahili-Zanzibari trader of mixed descent. The Qarmatians ("Those Who Wrote in Small Letters" also transliterated "Carmathians", "Qarmathians", "Karmathians" etc.) 4 0 obj In the 3rd century A.D, the Sassanids succeeded the Parthians and held the area until the rise of Islam four centuries later. All were deported and some were killed. In 1698, Zanzibar became part of the overseas holdings of Oman, falling under the control of the Sultan of Oman. Tniemy ceny od 7 stycznia do 25 lutego * Tydzie TYLKO 1190 z/os w pokoju z druga osob! These countries, with Germany, became the principal buyers, but Sad also exported goods in his own ships to Arabia and India and, occasionally, to Europe and to the United States. Khalid failed to do so, and instead assembled an army of 2,800 men to fight the British. This meant that Stone Town, for a time, served as . There were occasional troubles with local tribes but the country was opened up by the colonial government with little bloodshed. [20]:761 After the First World War, more immigrants arrived from Britain and South Africa, and by 1919 the European population was estimated at 9,000 strong. Which statements describe English and French exploration efforts during the mid-sixteenth century? Until his death in 1856, the sultan split his time between Oman and Zanzibar, a period marking the height of the Omani Empires decisive influence over international trade in the Indian Ocean. Name any three Portuguese individuals who led expeditions to capture the east coast of Africa. The United Kingdom ceded sovereignty over the Colony of Kenya and, under an agreement dated 8 October 1963, the Sultan agreed that simultaneously with independence for Kenya, the Sultan would cease to have sovereignty over the Protectorate of Kenya. The Yarubid dynasty expanded, acquiring former Portuguese colonies in East Africa - including Zanzibar - and engaging in the slave trade. Muscat and Oman was the object of Franco-British rivalry throughout the 18th century. Where American Muslims Are Now, and What Lies Ahead? The Hindutva-Zionist Alliance Has Never Looked So Ominous. The British gave Imam Azzam's rival, Turki ibn Said Al-Busaid, financial and political support. The new rulers initially administered the region through some Arab families; The Mazrui (Mazaria) family which ruled Mombasa. On 12 January 1964, Jamshid bin Abdullah, the last sultan, was deposed and lost sovereignty over the last of his dominions, Zanzibar, marking the end of the Sultanate. As a result of this struggle, the empirethrough the mediation of the British Government under the Canning Awardwas divided in 1861 into two separate principalities: Zanzibar (with its East African dependencies), and Muscat and Oman. Imam Azzan understood that to unify the country a strong, central authority had to be established with control over the interior tribes of Oman. Answers (1). Zanzibar was famous worldwide for its spices and its slaves. Turki ibn Said succeeded in defeating the forces of Imam Azzam, who was killed in battle outside Matrah in January 1871. <> Our editors will review what youve submitted and determine whether to revise the article. He was exiled to Bombay for two years. Kenya (Annexation) Order in Council, 1920, S.R.O. Zanzibar's central position also favoured development of long distance trade. [30] Jamshid fled into exile, and the Sultanate was replaced by the People's Republic of Zanzibar. However, from 1887 to 1892, all of these mainland possessions were lost to the colonial powers of the United Kingdom, Germany, and Italy, although some were not formally sold or ceded until the 20th century (Mogadishu to Italy in 1905 and Mombasa to Britain in 1963). [11] The third Sultan, Khalifa bin Said, also furthered the country's progress toward abolishing slavery. He was never elected to the purely religious office of imam that all his predecessors held. That year, however, the Society for German Colonization forced local chiefs on the mainland to agree to German protection, prompting Sultan Bargash bin Said to protest. Austin's opinions, analyses, positions, or other information stated in his writing are those of Austin alone and cannot be attributed, credited, implied to, or otherwise associated with any entity with the exception of appropriate source attribution. It was East Africa's main slave-trading port, and in the 19th century as many as 50,000 slaves were passing through the slave markets of Zanzibar each year. On his death, his will freed them but not his plantation slaves. stream 246. They are most famed for their revolt against the Abbasid Caliphate. In 1698, Zanzibar became part of the overseas holdings of Oman after Saif bin Sultan, the Imam of Oman, defeated the Portuguese in Mombasa, in what is now Kenya. Kenya Protectorate Order in Council, 1920, S.R.O. Even before the Omani conquest, Zanzibar had a strong connection to the Arab world. In resorting to military means to unify Muscat and Oman, Imam Azzam alienated members of the Ghafiri tribes, who revolted in the 18701871 period. The relationship between Oman and Zanzibar culminated in 1840: that year, Omani Sultan Said . Many Arabs relocated to the island, introducing Zanzibar to Ibadism, the obscure strand of Islam to which a majority of Omanis subscribe. Under an 1861 agreement mediated by Britainknown to historians as the Canning Awardthe sultans sons decided to cut his empire in half. During his rule, East Africa and Zanzibar became known as the Pearl of the Indian Ocean. As a regional commercial power in the 19th century, Oman held territories on the island of Zanzibar off the coast of East Africa, the area along the coast of East Africa known as Zanj including Mombasa and Dar es Salaam, and until 1958 in Gwadar (in present-day Pakistan) on the coast of the Arabian Sea. In the end, Oman and Zanzibar followed divergent geopolitical paths. The United Kingdom did not grant Zanzibar independence, as such, because the UK never had sovereignty over Zanzibar. In a violent 1964 uprising known as the Zanzibar Revolution, the islands non-Arab majority revolted. The British responded the next day, August 26, 1896, by issuing an ultimatum to Khalid and his entourage to evacuate the palace by 9:00 a.m. on August 27. 3 Sayyid Sir Khalifa I bin Said Al-Busaid 26 March 1888 13 February 1890 Supported abolitionism, like his predecessor. Qaboos bin Said - present sultan. Corrections? Yet the intervention on behalf of an unpopular dynasty brought about a revolt. The Portuguese were expelled and a lucrative trade in slaves and ivory thrived, along with an expanding plantation economy centring on cloves. b) The towns also wished to maintain their independence as they were during the Portuguese rule. 608 501 460Poniedziaek- pitek od 16:00 - 19:00Sobota - niedziela 08:00 - 19:00, Rezerwacja:kom. From the 1820s caravans from Zanzibar reversed the immemorial system of trade by which African products had been brought to the coast by African caravans. The rule of the Portuguese had positive as well as negative effects on the people of east African coast where their rule was established. Said II bin Sultan (second reign) 14 September 1806 19 October 1856 Sole Ruler @\Jxu9hoO= ;)?N#/%sp4[4wiqxkxS#s5FyH;wFJEY>qHh95G`4RU/8i5gl;R=pio=MBR3dX6xI#m2`JHN IFnGRza+&]$`QEK-)ycAtp%H8P-Q8T-G DCuK)7lf_w+n~P.YPG?%yZ0Osg"WxQ!h,Ux.bCbg~mp@hs: ] )H6b\*l"Q#%=Q_Fy]$|/6C_. jM=#OFd U9&a~%U|R7. >Qma't>\K :kF &/_1UuNf%%x oh@Kwd9$\`` 7EN !A1!FoO(-T:`T C[WV. He died at sea in 1856 and was greatly mourned by his subjects. In 1970, Qaboos bin Said Al Said ousted his father, Sa'id bin Taymur, who later died in exile in London. [22] That part of the former Protectorate was thereby constituted as the Colony of Kenya and from that time, the Sultan of Zanzibar ceased to be sovereign over that territory. The Majlis Al-Shura may request ministers to appear before it. By 1719 dynastic succession led to the nomination of Saif ibn Sultan II. The British gave Khalid an hour to vacate the Sultan's palace in Stone Town. The area was once a major trade point and the former capital of Oman. . From 1890 to 1913, traditional viziers were appointed to govern as puppets, switching to a system of British residents (effectively governors) from 1913 to 1963. This period was shared- 30 years of his reign was in Muscat and the rest was in Zanzibar. There have been discoveries of Palaeolithic stone tools in caves in southern and central Oman, and in the United Arab Emirates close to the Straits of Hormuz at the outlet of the Persian Gulf. They divided the coastline into two strips that were headed by captains. This bifurcation represented the anti-climactic demise of the Omani Empire. Please refer to the appropriate style manual or other sources if you have any questions. 606 901 531tel. In 1827 Sad went to assert his authority in person: one effect was greatly to increase the revenues remitted. The Middle East has hosted many of the worlds most storied cultures and empires. The remaining 16km (10mi) wide coastal strip (with the exception of Witu) remained a Protectorate under an agreement with the Sultan of Zanzibar. % Agreement of 14 June 1890: State pp. Briefly describe the social organization of the Luo during pre-colonial period. On April 6, 1861, Zanzibar and Oman were divided into two separate principalities. The publication presented a vivid picture of British and world events including news of war, disaster, ceremonies, the arts and science. Because of need, there are many such pages at RHWW: usually, but not always, linked to primary pages. Get a Britannica Premium subscription and gain access to exclusive content. HC Deb 22 November 1963 vol 684 cc1329-400 wherein the UK Under-Secretary of State for Commonwealth Relations and for the Colonies stated" "An agreement was then signed on 8 October 1963, providing that on the date when Kenya became independent the territories composing the Kenya Coastal Strip would become part of Kenya proper. The island soon became a hub of Islamic learning in its own rightto the extent that a number of leading Ibadi scholars from Oman chose to migrate to Zanzibar. Sheikh Abeid Amani Karume was named President of the newly created People's Republic of Zanzibar and Pemba. 602 703 448Poniedziaek- pitek od 16:00 - 19:00Sobota - niedziela 08:00 - 19:00. The relationship between Oman and Zanzibar culminated in 1840: that year, Omani Sultan Said bin Sultan changed the seat of government from Muscat to Stone Town, Omans most significant outpost on the East African island. 3 0 obj The coastal towns led by Mombasa resisted Omans conquest due to the following reasons. Mombasa was the administrative centre at this time. There ensued a struggle between Sad and the Mazari for Mombasa that ended only in 1837 when, by a ruse, he took some 30 of the enemy captive. Briefly explain any six positive impacts of the 200 years Portuguese rule on the East African Coast. In 1868 Azzam ibn Qais Al-Busaid (r. 18681871) emerged as self-declared imam. His interest in East Africa was not simply to gain increased tax revenue: it was primarily commercial. 6 Sayyid Khalid bin Barghash Al-Busaid 25 August 1896 27 August 1896 Was a belligerent in the Anglo-Zanzibar War, the shortest war in recorded history. This state of affairs was short-lived, as the Sultan and the democratically elected government were overthrown on 12 January 1964 in the Zanzibar Revolution led by John Okello, a Ugandan citizen. Born in 1791, Sad succeeded his father jointly with his brother Salm in 1804, but their cousin Badr immediately usurped the throne. 1902 No. Austin Bodetti is a Morocco-based writer specializing in the Greater Middle East and North Africa region. His will divided his dominions between his sons Mjid, who became ruler of Zanzibar, and Thuwayn, who received Muscat and Oman. This is a specific subject page, dealing exclusively with, or primarily with, the subject in the title. These empires brought order to the religious and ethnic diversity of the population of this cosmopolitan region. Give the reasons that the Oman ruler had for choosing Zanzibar . In April 1964, the existence of this socialist republic was ended with its union with Tanganyika to form the United Republic of Tanganyika and Zanzibar, which became known as Tanzania six months later. The United Kingdom's early interest in Zanzibar was motivated by both commerce and the determination to end the slave trade. Date posted: April 25, 2019. endobj His successor, Barghash bin Said, helped abolish the slave trade in Zanzibar and largely developed the country's infrastructure. That year, Zanzibar became a protectorate (not a colony) of Britain. For this, he was knighted by Queen Victoria. On April 6, 1861, Zanzibar and Oman were divided into two separate principalities. were a Shi'a Ismaili group centered in eastern Arabia, where they attempted to established a utopian republic in 899 A.D. By the 1840s he had made Zanzibar the principal power in eastern Africa and the commercial capital of the western Indian Ocean. Al Said's extensive modernization program has opened the country to the outside world and has preserved a long-standing political and military relationship with the United Kingdom, the United States, and others. coast after the capture of fort Jesus in 1698. At the same time, however, vestiges of the Omani Empire remained. Most of the overseas possessions were seized by the United Kingdom and by 1850 Oman was an isolated and poor area of the world. On 10 December 1963, Zanzibar received its independence from the United Kingdom as a constitutional monarchy under the Sultan. 08:00 - 15:00), Orodek:kom. & S.I. Exactly 12 months later on 12 December 1964, Kenya became a republic under the name "Republic of Kenya". 661, S.R.O. While every effort has been made to follow citation style rules, there may be some discrepancies. Provenance: Antique wood engraved print taken from the Illustrated London News. Zanzibars new government then opted to merge with the neighboring republic of Tanganyika, forming what would become Tanzania. [17], That "Zanzibar" for these purposes included the 16km (10mi) coastal strip of Kenya that would later become the Protectorate of Kenya was a matter recorded in the parliamentary debates at the time. He lived to make the islands of Zanzibar and Pemba the largest clove producers in the world. 22Poniedziaek - pitek 08:00 - 15:00, Orodek:kom. They spoke the Deilami language, a northwestern Persia dialect similar to that of the neighbouring Gilites. The insurgents were defeated in 1959 with British help. do you have any answers for i human case heather miller? ", National March for the Sultan of Zanzibar, United Republic of Tanganyika and Zanzibar, "Zanzibar (1911-1964) nationalanthems.info", "BRITISH EAST AFRICA. Ibadism became the dominant religious sect in Oman by the 8th century; Ibadhism is known for its "moderate conservatism". Oman maintained its diplomatic relations with Iraq throughout the Gulf War while supporting the United Nations allies by sending a contingent of troops to join coalition forces and by opening up to pre-positioning of weapons and supplies. Their greatest allies were the Mijikenda who promised. In 1154, the indigenous Nabhani dynasty took control of Oman, and the Nabhani kings ruled Oman until 1470, with an interruption of 37 years between 1406 and 1443. His candidacy prompted a rivalry among the ulama and a civil war between the two major tribes, the Hinawi and the Ghafiri, with the Ghafiri supporting Saif ibn Sultan II. Check all that apply. [20]:762 The capital was shifted from Mombasa to Nairobi in 1905. (David Livingstone estimated that 80,000 Africans died each year before ever reaching the island.) Jazzablanca: Jazz and Class Converge in Morocco, Marrakechs Magnificent Medersa Ben Youssef Reopens its Doors, Haftar Sought Israels Blessings Before Announcing his Bid for Libyas Presidency, Despite Some Allies Losses, Iran Remains Key Influence in Iraqs Elections. [3] The various ethnic groups were becoming mixed and the distinctions between them had blurred;[31] according to one historian, an important reason for the general support for Sultan Jamshid was his family's ethnic diversity. Answers (1). The Arabs established garrisons at Zanzibar, Pemba, and Kilwa. ", The Official Website of the Zanzibar Royal Family, "Zanzibar, a sultanate and British protectorate of East Africa", https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sultanate_of_Zanzibar&oldid=1133751258, Former British colonies and protectorates in Africa, States and territories established in 1856, States and territories disestablished in 1964, Short description is different from Wikidata, Articles containing Swahili (macrolanguage)-language text, Pages using infobox country or infobox former country with the flag caption or type parameters, Pages using infobox country or infobox former country with the symbol caption or type parameters, Articles with unsourced statements from September 2022, Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference, Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License 3.0, This page was last edited on 15 January 2023, at 09:55.